The short version of Mass spectrometry fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
This page was last updated on 2026-01-06 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Animal and clinical reports appear mainly in Russian-language journals from the 1990s and 2000s, covering endpoints such as melatonin rhythm, lifespan in aged rodents, and retinal function. Many of these papers involve small groups, lack blinding or placebo comparison, and are difficult to retrieve through indexed databases. Review articles published in English generally summarise the claims without reanalysing the underlying data. Because no large randomised trial exists, the clinical importance of these reported effects stays unresolved and is properly described as an open question.
No national medicines regulator has approved epitalon as a therapeutic product. It is generally distributed as a research chemical, and in some jurisdictions selling peptides for human consumption without approval is restricted or prohibited. Certificates of analysis accompanying commercial material vary in which tests are performed, and independent verification of identity and purity is uncommon. Statements about anti-ageing or disease-prevention benefits on vendor pages are marketing claims rather than regulatory findings, a distinction that shapes how the compound is discussed in scientific and popular sources alike.
Epitalon is a synthetic linear tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine–glutamate–aspartate–glycine, abbreviated AEDG. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9 and the calculated mass is approximately 390.35 g/mol. The compound is made by solid-phase peptide synthesis rather than extracted from tissue, although early work described it as a short fragment of a peptide fraction obtained from bovine pineal extract. In the research literature the spelling epitalon and the variant epithalone both appear, while AEDG is the standard code used in peptide nomenclature.
Several names circulate for the same molecule, including epitalon, epithalone, epithalamin tetrapeptide, and the sequence code AEDG. A CAS registry number, 307297-39-8, is commonly cited for it, though catalogue entries should be checked against supplier documentation because mislabelled records occur. In its usual form the peptide carries free amino and carboxyl termini and is neither glycosylated nor lipidated. Researchers distinguish the defined tetrapeptide from epithalamin itself, a crude pineal preparation containing many peptides that is not chemically characterised.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Regulatory status | Not an approved drug | Marketed in most countries as a research chemical |
| Main literature language | Russian and English | Early reports concentrated in Russian journals |
| Typical stated purity | ≥95% by HPLC | Supplier declaration, seldom independently verified |
| Principal studied endpoint | Telomerase activity in vitro | Measured in cultured human cells |
| Reported administration routes | Subcutaneous, intranasal | Described in exploratory use reports |
Regulatory status varies by country and is not harmonized. Epitalon is not an approved drug in major Western jurisdictions. In some countries it is sold as a research chemical, and in others it has appeared in products marketed for other categories. This inconsistent status means that purity, labeling accuracy, and documentation differ widely between suppliers, and verification of identity and purity through independent analysis is the usual way buyers assess a given lot.
Epitalon appears in the literature primarily through a small number of research groups, most of them associated with the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology. Publications describe cell culture experiments, animal studies, and a limited number of small human studies. Independent replication outside this network is sparse. As a result, reviews of the topic usually separate descriptive reports of observed effects from the question of whether those effects generalize, and they note the difficulty of comparing studies that use different preparations and endpoints.
Analytical characterization of epitalon relies on standard peptide methods. Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography is used to assess purity, and mass spectrometry confirms identity by checking the observed mass against the expected value near 390 daltons. Amino acid analysis can verify composition. Because the peptide is short and hydrophilic, it elutes early on many reverse-phase columns, so method development often requires ion-pairing reagents to achieve adequate retention and resolution from related impurities.
Interest in epitalon is usually discussed within the broader field of short peptide bioregulators, a category that includes other synthetic di-, tri-, and tetrapeptides studied by the same research group. These compounds share a common rationale: that small fragments of tissue-derived proteins can retain biological activity and can be produced reproducibly. The category as a whole remains outside mainstream pharmacological consensus, and epitalon specifically has a limited presence in independent, non-Russian research literature, which shapes how its evidence base is described.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the amino acid sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, abbreviated Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly or AEDG. It was developed by the Russian researcher Vladimir Khavinson and colleagues during work on peptide bioregulators derived from the pineal gland. The compound is short enough to be produced by standard solid-phase peptide synthesis and is typically handled as a lyophilized white powder. Its small size distinguishes it from larger pineal peptides such as epithalamin, a complex extract from which the tetrapeptide was conceptually derived.
The four residues give epitalon a molecular formula of C14H22N4O9 and a molecular weight near 390.35 daltons. The presence of two acidic residues, glutamate and aspartate, makes the free peptide strongly acidic, while the alanine and glycine ends provide neutral, nonpolar character. This combination produces a molecule with substantial water solubility. Because there are no cysteine, methionine, or tryptophan residues, the peptide lacks the most common oxidation-sensitive side chains, which simplifies handling compared with many longer peptides.
Stability of the tetrapeptide follows ordinary peptide chemistry rather than any unusual structural feature. The aspartate-glycine pair is prone to aspartimide formation under mildly basic or neutral conditions, and deamidation can follow, altering both mass and chromatographic retention. Dry lyophilised powder kept at or below minus twenty degrees Celsius is the usual handling recommendation, with repeated freeze-thaw cycles avoided. Once dissolved in neutral aqueous buffer, degradation proceeds over days to weeks depending on pH and temperature, while acidic conditions generally slow the aspartimide route. A formal stability-indicating study has not been published in the indexed literature.
Because epitalon has no pharmacopoeial monograph, quality assessment depends on supplier documentation and independent testing. Certificates of analysis typically report a purity figure from a single chromatographic run, a measured mass and sometimes an appearance description, but methods and acceptance criteria are not harmonised across vendors. Third-party laboratories can repeat identity and purity measurements, and mismatches between labelled and measured peptide content have been described for research peptides generally. What constitutes adequate identity confirmation for a molecule of this size stays an open question, since mass agreement alone does not separate closely related sequences.
Identity testing for epitalon relies on reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography for purity and mass spectrometry for mass confirmation. Because the sequence contains no tryptophan or tyrosine, ultraviolet detection at 280 nanometres is insensitive, so chromatographic methods usually monitor absorbance near 214 nanometres, where the peptide backbone absorbs. Electrospray ionisation or matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation then checks the intact mass against the expected value near 390 daltons. Peptide mapping or amino acid analysis after acid hydrolysis can supplement these measurements, although such confirmatory work is seldom reported on commercial certificates of analysis.
1993/3253) Customs Duties (ECSC) (Quota and other Reliefs) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/3254) Medicines (Products Other Than Veterinary Drugs) (Prescription Only) Amendment (No. 2) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/3256) Tribunals and Inquiries (Friendly Societies) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/3258) Cardiff—Glan Conwy Trunk Road (A470) (Pentrebach—Cefn Coed Diversion) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/3259) London Borough of Hackney (Lea Bridge-Cycle/Footbridge) Scheme 1993 Confirmation Instrument 1993 (S.I. 1993/3260) M42 Motorway (Junction 6 Southbound Off-Slip Road to Eastway) Scheme 1993 (S.I. 1993/3261) Export of Goods (Control) (Amendment No. 6) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/3264) County Court (Amendment No. 4) Rules 1993 (S.I. 1993/3273) Land Registration Rules 1993 (S.I. 1993/3275) Land Registration (Official Searches) Rules 1993 (S.I. 1993/3276)
Multituberculates (named for the multiple tubercles on their "molars") are often called the "rodents of the Mesozoic", due to their appearances, traits and attributes. In general, marsupial cuscuses, brushtail possums, and their close relatives (Phalangeridae), are more terrestrial than other members of the suborder Phalangeriformes, and resemble terrestrial primates in some respects, especially lemurs of Madagascar, which are prosimians. Both the placental superorder Euarchontoglires and diprotodont marsupials are documented to possess a vermiform appendix. Thoatherium had a single hoof similar to one of an horse and was even described to a "pseudo-horse".
The Mysterious Island (French: L'Île de Calypso, literally "Calypso's Island"), sometimes advertised with the subtitle Ulysse et le géant Polyphème ("Odysseus and the Giant Polyphemus"), is a 1905 French short silent film by Georges Méliès. It was sold by Méliès's Star Film Company and is numbered 750–752 in its catalogues. The film is four minutes long. Méliès plays Odysseus in the film, which is based on two completely separate scenes from the Odyssey, combining Ogygia, Calypso's island in the Ionian Sea, with Polyphemus's cave near Mount Etna in Sicily. The film's special effects are worked with stage machinery, multiple exposures, substitution splices, and dissolves. Polyphemus's eye is puppeteered with two strings, while the giant arm is probably Méliès's own.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Wound healing === Aroa Biosurgery Limited first distributed OFM commercially in 2012 as Endoform™ Dermal Template (later Endoform™ Natural) through a distribution partnership with Hollister Incorporated (IL, USA). Endoform™ Natural and Endoform™ Antimicrobial (0.3% ionic silver w/w), are single layers of OFM used in the treatment of acute and chronic wounds, including diabetic foot ulcers (DFU) and venous leg ulcers (VLU). Endoform™ Natural has been shown to accelerate wound healing of DFU. The wound product Symphony™ combines OFM and hyaluronic acid and is designed to support healing during the proliferative phase particularly in patients whose healing is severely impaired or compromised due to disease.
Before 2011, India had prevented innovation and organised competition in its consumer retail industry. Several studies claim that the lack of infrastructure and competitive retail industry is a key cause of India's persistently high inflation. Furthermore, because of unorganised retail, in a nation where malnutrition remains a serious problem, food wastage is rife. Well over 30% of food staples and perishable goods produced in India spoil because of poor infrastructure and small retail outlets prevent hygienic storage and movement of the goods from the farmer to the consumer. One report estimates the 2011 Indian retail market as generating sales of about $470 billion a year, of which a minuscule $27 billion comes from organised retail such as supermarkets, chain stores with centralised operations and shops in malls. The opening of retail industry to free market competition, some claim will enable rapid growth in retail sector of Indian economy. Others believe the growth of Indian retail industry will take time, with organised retail possibly needing a decade to grow to a 25% share. A 25% market share, given the expected growth of Indian retail industry through 2021, is estimated to be over $250 billion a year: a revenue equal to the 2009 revenue share from Japan for the world's 250 largest retailers., The Economist forecasts that Indian retail will nearly double in economic value, expanding by about $850 billion by 2020. The projected increase alone is equivalent to the current retail market size of France.
Climate change Belize is highly vulnerable to climate change due to its low-lying coastal areas, diverse ecosystems, and economic reliance on tourism and agriculture. As a country, Belize's 2023 greenhouse gas emissions are relatively low (7.46 million tonnes), however, it ranks as the 13th highest country for per capita emissions, at 18.13 tonnes per person. Land use change and forestry together is the highest source of emissions in Belize. The government has committed to net zero emissions by 2050 and has developed climate resilience and adaptation plans.
Lidocaine/prilocaine is a topical anesthesia which can be used to numb the skin for medical or cosmetic purposes; it is a eutectic mixture of equal quantities (by weight) of lidocaine and prilocaine. A 5% emulsion preparation, containing 2.5% each of lidocaine/prilocaine, is marketed by APP Pharmaceuticals under the trade name EMLA (an abbreviation for Eutectic Mixture of Local Anesthetics). As a spray, it is marketed under the name Tempe (topical eutectic-like mixture for premature ejaculation) (PSD502) that can be used by men to help with premature ejaculation. The spray is manufactured by Plethora Solutions and branded as Fortacin in the UK and Recordati in the EU.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Enzyme structure == Enteropeptidase is a type II transmembrane serine protease (TTSP) localized to the brush border of the duodenal and jejunal mucosa and synthesized as a zymogen, proenteropeptidase, which requires activation by duodenase or trypsin. TTSPs are synthesized as single chain zymogens with N-terminal propeptide sequences of different lengths. These enzymes are activated by cleavage at the carboxyl side of lysine or arginine residues present in a highly conserved activation motif. Once activated, TTSPs are predicted to remain membrane-bound through a conserved disulfide bond linking the pro- and catalytic domains. In the case of cattle enteropeptidase the primary translation product comprises 1035 residues with an expected mass of 114.9 kDa. The detected apparent mass of about 160 kDa is consistent with the specified carbohydrate content of 30 - 40%, with equal amounts of neutral and amino sugars. The activation cleavage site after Lys800 splits the heavy and light chains of mature cattle enteropeptidase. There are 17 potential N-linked glycosylation sites in the heavy chain and three in the light chain; most of these are conserved in other species. The heavy chain has a hydrophobic section near the N-terminus that supports the transmembrane anchor. The heavy chain influences the specificity of enteropeptidase. Native enteropeptidase is resistant to soybean trypsin inhibitor. However, the isolated light chain is subtle whether prepared by limited reduction of the natural protein or by mutagenesis and expression in COS cells.
Impatiens balsamina, commonly known as balsam, garden balsam, rose balsam, touch-me-not or spotted snapweed, is a species of plant native to India and Myanmar. It is an annual plant growing to 20–75 cm (7.9–29.5 in) tall, with a thick, but soft stem. The leaves are spirally-arranged, 2.5–9 cm (1.0–3.5 in) long and 1–2.5 cm broad, with a deeply toothed margin. The flowers are pink, red, mauve, purple, lilac, or white, and 2.5–5 cm diameter; they are pollinated by bees and other insects, and also by nectar-feeding birds. The ripe seed capsules undergo explosive dehiscence.
Narrated by Jonathan Cullen, produced by Andy Paterson, directed by Patrick Forbes 22 September Fighting the G-Force, it looked at the Brooks Air Force Base in Texas; F-16 aircraft of the United States Air Force Thunderbirds; a G-force simulator on 30 May 1997, where a pilot experiences G-LOC; Major Mark Arlinghaus of the Thunderbirds; Captain Rick Forster, an F-16 instructor; Luke Air Force Base in Arizona, where F-16 pilots were trained; Major Rob Kesterson, an instructor with the 62nd Fighter Squadron; Lt Toby Brallier of the 62nd Fighter Squadron, who blacked out, but he was in a two-seat F-16 trainer; Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico, where all USAF pilots learn about G-LOC, and are medically tested; Captain John Condojani and G-suits; a G-force centrifuge, rotating once every two seconds; pilots referred to G-LOC as 'doing the funky chicken'; to fly in an A-10, a pilot had to cope with 7.5G, and there were no exceptions; F-16 pilots had to cope with 9G; Captain Rick Fofi, a physical training officer with the USAF; women had been allowed to fly USAF fighter aircraft since 1993; Dr William Albery, chief of USAF aerospace medical research; Colonel James Dooley of flight motion effects at Brooks AFB in Texas, in the Armstrong Laboratory, named after Harry George Armstrong, known for the Armstrong limit; taller pilots were more susceptible to G-LOC; when the German Air Force inherited East German pilots, it discovered that the East German air force believed that G-LOC could be prevented by ruthless selection of pilots and better fitness preparation; Wing Commander Andreas Valentiner of the Luftwaffe Institute of Aviation Medicine; the German Air Force decided to ruthlessly select pilots by G-LOC in a centrifuge as well, before any training commenced - it was the only NATO air force to do this; Dr Brendan Godfrey, director of the Armstrong Laboratory; Captain Kelly Greene of Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio; Colonel Ron Hill, head of the Crew Systems Directorate; Finley Barfield, chief engineer of the F-16, and what became the Automatic Ground Collision Avoidance System, to avoid controlled flight into terrain (CFIT); Dr Paul Werchan of Brooks AFB; Dr Gene McCall of the United States Air Force Scientific Advisory Board; the Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk, planned to first fly in late 1997. Narrated by Piers Gibbon, produced by Simon Berthon, directed by Mark Rubens, made by 3BM Television with The Learning Channel (TLC) 29 September The Iceberg Cometh, about the dangers of icebergs in the Atlantic Ocean; for every metre above surface, four metres are below; the icebergs are made of snow that fell half a million years ago; Greenland is as large as western Europe; icebergs can travel thirty miles a day; the International Ice Patrol was formed in 1914, and now checks half a million square miles; patrols take place three times a week from March to July in the Atlantic Marine Ecozone; glaciologist Peter Wadhams of the University of Cambridge; the North Greenland Ice Core Project (NGRIP) began in 1995. Produced by David Frank, directed by Cathy Rogers, made by RDF Television with the Discovery Channel 13 October Coma, on 4 June 1996 a 32-year-old woman was beaten unconscious in New York Central Park; she was one of four women beaten by 22-year-old John Royster, with the last, 62-year-old Evelyn Alvarez on Park Avenue, not surviving, and Royster was caught from a fingerprint, and was sentenced to life without parole in 1998; neurosurgeon Jamshid Ghajar; the Jamaica Hospital Medical Center, where a nine year old boy, Alex, had been hit by a car, and had severe head trauma, and had a head CT scan; the 'second accident' in the first week in hospital, where the brain swelled, and blocked the flow of blood; a tube was inserted into the brain, to release fluid from swelling, known as a ventriculostomy; the New York Hospital Pediatric ICU, now the Weill Cornell Medical Center; on day two, the eye pupils began to dilate, which can indicate brain swelling, and the intracranial pressure increased, until day three: by day twenty, Alex began to show greater responses, and by day 39, he was walking, and will make a good recovery; neurosurgeon Randall Chesnut, of Oregon, now at the University of Washington School of Medicine; Nicole Ward had a car accident, with a brain injury, but makes a good recovery, thanks to the ventriculostomy procedure; the International Conference on Recent Advances in Neurotraumatology (ICRAN) in early September 1996 at the University of Bologna in Rimini in north-east Italy, where new guidelines of the American Academy of Neurology would be disseminated, from work by the Colorado Medical Society in 1991. A US production, narrated by Piers Gibbon, produced by Paula Apsell, directed by Linda Garmon, made by Nova and WGBH. Shown on Nova on 7 October 1997 20 October Superhighway Robbery, an updated repeat 27 October Sun Storm, about geomagnetic storms, with Nicola Fox of the Heliophysics Science Division; Mike Lockwood (physicist); the March 1989 geomagnetic storm and Hydro-Québec's electricity transmission system; Telesat of Ottawa, and the High Altitude Observatory; a warning system for geomagnetic storms, the Cluster satellite network, was to be launched on 4 June 1996 on board Ariane flight V88, but the launch was a disaster; historical solar records at the Armagh Observatory showed how weather fluctuated with solar activity over the years, John Butler found a connection with Earth temperature; Brian Tinsley looked at electrical charge in clouds causing rain, found by aircraft of the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR); Ernest Hildner of the Space Weather Prediction Center; North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD); Daniel N. Baker of the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics; the Advanced Composition Explorer, launched in August 1997, would detect the magnetic polarity of any solar winds. Narrated by Robin Ellis, directed by Dan Chambers, produced by Robert Eagle, made by Eagle & Eagle 3 November Natural Born Genius?, about inherited intelligence; the population geneticist Robert Plomin, who came to London in 1994; bioethicist Jonathan Glover; psychologist Camilla Benbow of Iowa State University, and the Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth; statistician Charles Spearman was the first to conduct research into general intelligence in 1904, and found that schoolchildren who were good at one academic subject were also good at other subjects and vice versa, and invented the term g factor (psychometrics), although Francis Galton had briefly looked at the subject; psychologist Ian Deary of the University of Edinburgh, where much research on intelligence has been conducted; Alfred Binet of France invented the intelligence test, so that low-scoring children could be given extra help; cognitive psychologist Michael Howe of the University of Exeter believed that the 11-plus exams in England, for grammar school entrance, could possibly label children; much educational testing took place in the US, as the government believed in it, by the Educational Testing Service (ETS); psychologist Stephen J. Ceci disputed reading cast-iron outcomes of individual intelligence tests, but nonetheless believed that general intelligence could be predicted across a population as a whole; Chris Allander of the Army School of Recruiting; Michael Howe conducted environmental education research of parental support, and if that was as much a factor as genetic or innate ability - environmental educational research largely ignored any genetic component, which Robert Plomin dismissed; psychologist Sandra Scarr had conducted much research on adopted children, which largely and conclusively proved the case for genetically inherited intelligence and abilities - and she believed that you could only teach subjects to children of whom had enough capability; Robert Plomin's wife, psychologist Judith Dunn, and varying intelligence of children within individual families; identical twins raised apart had identical IQ scores; psychologist Thalia C. Eley of the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience; from Robert Plomin's exhaustive adoption genetic studies, he finds a genetic link. Narrated by Barbara Flynn, produced by Rosalind Arden, directed by David Cresswell, made by John Gau Productions. John Gau had made Triumph of the Nerds the year before 10 November Losing It, about the persistence of sportspeople in the face of adversity; Steve Backley, javelin thrower gained three world records and was European champion in 1990 at the age of 21, but at the 1991 World Championships in Athletics in Tokyo, he didn't get past the qualifying round, where he had to throw 82m but he could only manage 78m; a fortnight later he threw 91m, gaining the British and Commonwealth records; mental strength is often the difference between success and failure; Doug Sanders, the American golfer, missed a straightforward put at the 1970 British Open; Sally Gunnell at the 1992 Olympics; sports psychologist Dave Collins (a former Royal Marine); footballer Lee Chapman who suffered a loss of confidence in 1982; Sally Gunnell, despite feeling intensely nervous before the final on 19 August of the 1993 World Championships in Athletics in Stuttgart, came first and broke the world record; Scottish golfer Sam Torrance and mental preparation for the zone; cricketer Michael Atherton; tennis player Mark Cox; neuroscientist Susan Greenfield, Baroness Greenfield, and alpha waves or alpha rhythm; banishing negative thoughts; Paul Holmes, sports psychologist of the Great Britain Pistol Squad (run by British Shooting since 2007); total mental absorption, denoted by alpha wave brain activity on an ECG, appeared to strongly help success; psychologist David Milner. Narrated by sports commentator Brian Moore, produced by Geoff Deehan, made by Union Pictures 17 November The Day the Earth Was Hit, the Tunguska event on 30 June 1908; David Morrison (astrophysicist) of NASA Ames; Duncan Steel of The Spaceguard Foundation; physicist Edward Teller; Russian mineralogist Leonid Kulik lead the investigation in 1927; the Tunguska explosion had the strength of a 15 megatonne nuclear explosion; astrophysicist Victor Clube and Bill Napier of Armagh Observatory; scientists from Tomsk State University visit Vanavara (rural locality) in the Siberian summer; the 1945 nuclear explosions had similarities in explosive effect to the Tunguska event; Benny Peiser; the Beta Taurids meteor shower; geochemist Evgeny Kolesnikov of Moscow University; tests at Sandia National Laboratories by Mark Boslough; astronomer Eleanor F. Helin of JPL, who worked on the Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking programme. Narrated by Anthony Hyde, produced by Simon Welfare, directed by Stephen White, made by Granite Productions 24 November When Pigs Ruled the World, about the species that survived the extinction event 250 million years ago, to give rise to mammals; Roger Smith of the South African Museum in the Karroo desert; Scottish paleontologist Mike Benton of the University of Bristol; Peter Ward (paleontologist) of the University of Washington; around 1977 a farmer found a strange footprint, made by a therapsid, the ancestor of mammals, in the Guadalupian part of the middle Permian; biologist Colin Tudge, and how large genetic variety was needed for rapid natural selection to occur, to go from sauropsids to synapsids; animatronics technician Neill Gorton would develop a working moving model; the Moschops plant eater, the more dangerous carnivore Anteosaurus, and the slower Lystrosaurus; paleontologists did not know whether therapsids laid eggs, or have birth to live animals; nasal concha bones; the Permian–Triassic extinction event, 252 million years ago, which scientists did not know the direct cause, and had taken place over 100,000 years; Pangaea was formed 350 million years ago; Tony Hallam of the University of Birmingham, and the events in the Triassic; due the extinction event, Lystrosaurus became much greater in number, as its predators had become extinct; small reptiles evolved into the dinosaurs, and Lystrosaurus evolved into rodents; loss of species was being counted on Madagascar; conservationist Joanna Durbin (now of the Climate, Community & Biodiversity Alliance) and the population of Lemur monkeys on Madagascar; Colin Tudge believed that mass extinctions were integral to evolution; Lystrosaurus lasted for ten million years. Narrated by Roger Allam, produced by Joanne Reay, directed by Howard Reay, made by The Mission, with the Discovery Channel 1 December Mindreaders, about autistic traits; Simon Baron Cohen at Cambridge; Temple Grandin in east Colorado; experimental psychologist Alison Gopnik of the University of California, Berkeley; the Sally–Anne test; Helen Tager-Flusberg, and Williams syndrome; Nancy Etcoff of Harvard Medical School; Phineas Gage; neurologist Robert T. Knight of UC Berkeley; Turner syndrome, where females miss the other X chromosome, and have autistic characteristics; David Skuse of the UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health found that if this X chromosome originated from the mother, the chances of autistic characteristics were much higher; female brains were typically more attuned to faces than male brains; the book An Anthropologist on Mars. Narrated by British actor Bernard Hill, produced by John Wyver, directed by Jeremy Taylor, made by Illuminations Productions. The female actress was Zoe Margolis, later known for Girl with a One-Track Mind 15 December The Conspiracy of Science, about biotechnology companies in Boston (US); David Kent of Genzyme; the Economic Espionage Act of 1996; the murder of Tsunao Saitoh, and his daughter, in May 1996; Steven Rosenberg of the National Cancer Institute; David Blumenthal of Massachusetts General Hospital; a study by Sandoz (now Novartis) into calcium channel blockers, such as felodipine, by Curt Furberg; full disclosure, or lack of any, of known adverse effects remains a greatly controversial subject. Narrated by Neil Pearson, produced by Geoff Deehan, directed by Tim Shawcross, made by Union Pictures with The Learning Channel (TLC) 22 December Moscow, We Have a Problem, about the Mir EO-23 collision in 1997; Mir had a fire on 24 February 1997; Michael Foale travelled to Mir in May 1997 on Atlantis; the father of Michael Foale was an RAF Meteor pilot; Mir had been in orbit since February 1987, 248 miles above the Earth; the shuttle was docked with Mir for five days; cosmonaut Konstantin Feoktistov, designer of Mir; Mir was only meant to last three years; the oxygen that the cosmonauts breathe originates from the crew's urine; on 24 June 1997, due to saving money on a radar system, a manual docking of the Progress resupply vehicle took place, where the Progress vehicle hit a module, side on; NASA never conducted docking without radar, in such a possibly dangerous way; Vladimir Solovyov (cosmonaut), director of the RKA Mission Control Center; cosmonaut Vasily Tsibliyev accidentally disconnected an important power cable; two more cosmonauts arrived to mend the module on 14 August 1997; the two previous cosmonauts returned to Earth; on 15 September 1997, Mir came close to a NASA satellite; the International Space Station would be launched in June 1998, to cost £20bn; Frank L. Culbertson Jr, director from 1995 of the Shuttle–Mir program; Michael Foale returned to Earth on 27 September 1997 after 142 days, on the Atlantis shuttle; cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev. Narrated by Haydn Gwynne, produced by Julian Ware, directed by Patrick Fleming, made by ITN Factual
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Small studies with human participants have been reported, chiefly in Russian-language journals, but they are limited in size and design. No large randomised controlled trial with published results is available.
The most reproducible biochemical observation comes from cultured cells, where the peptide was reported to raise telomerase activity. Whether this translates into measurable health effects in animals or humans is not established.
It is offered as a research chemical for laboratory use, which places it outside the approval pathways applied to medicines. Buyers should expect documentation to differ between suppliers.
It is a synthetic tetrapeptide. Its sequence was derived from research on peptide fractions of bovine pineal extract, and the intact AEDG sequence has not been demonstrated as an abundant free peptide in human tissue.