The short version of Epitalon fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
This page was last updated on 2026-04-23 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the residue sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. Its monoisotopic mass is approximately 390.35 daltons, and it is usually supplied as a lyophilised trifluoroacetate or acetate salt. The compound was derived from a pineal gland extract called epithalamin, a heterogeneous preparation investigated in the former Soviet Union. Researchers associated with the Saint Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology described the tetrapeptide as a constituent fragment of that extract. Commercial material is offered as a laboratory reagent rather than as a finished pharmaceutical product.
Literature searches for this compound must account for several spelling variants. Indexing databases contain epitalon, epithalon, epithalone, and AEDG, and relevant records are scattered across Russian-language and English-language journals that do not consistently cross-cite. Early publications describe the parent extract as a mixture of many peptides, whereas later work addresses the single synthetic tetrapeptide. That shift in nomenclature complicates comparison between studies, because extract data and tetrapeptide data are sometimes cited interchangeably. A search strategy omitting the alternate spellings will return an incomplete set of references.
Reported biological findings come mainly from cell culture and rodent experiments. Those studies describe changes in telomerase catalytic subunit expression, melatonin rhythm amplitude, and antioxidant enzyme activity after peptide exposure. Human data are sparse and consist of small trials with limited blinding and inconsistent endpoints. The proposed mechanisms remain hypotheses rather than established facts, and there is no consensus on whether effects observed in animals carry over to people. Independent replication outside the original research groups is limited, which is a recognised gap in the published literature.
The compound is described in the literature as a derivative of epithalamin, a preparation obtained from bovine pineal tissue. Work on this peptide family was carried out mainly by a research group in Saint Petersburg beginning in the 1980s, and the substance was later registered for clinical use in Russia under the name Epitalon. Outside that region it is generally treated as a research chemical rather than an approved medicine. Statements about its biological activity rest on a relatively small number of studies, and independent replication remains limited.
In its supplied form epitalon is a white to off-white powder, usually lyophilized and often hygroscopic. It dissolves readily in water and in aqueous buffers, and it is commonly handled as the acetate or trifluoroacetate salt to improve stability during purification and drying. The amide backbone is labile in aqueous media, so solutions are less durable than the dry solid. Handling notes in the chemical literature therefore emphasize keeping the powder dry, cool and shielded from light until it is dissolved.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide whose sequence is alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, written in single-letter code as AEDG. The four residues are joined by three peptide bonds, giving a linear backbone with no branching and no disulfide bridges. Its calculated molecular mass for the free form is approximately 390.3 daltons, a figure that rises when the compound is supplied as an acetate or trifluoroacetate salt. Because the chain is short, the molecule is defined entirely by its residue order rather than by any folded three-dimensional structure.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic tetrapeptide | Four amino acid residues |
| Residue sequence | Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly | Abbreviated AEDG |
| Approximate mass | 390.35 Da | Monoisotopic, free base form |
| Parent preparation | Epithalamin extract | Derived from pineal tissue |
| Common spelling variants | Epithalon, epithalone, AEDG | Affects literature retrieval |
Storage recommendations center on limiting moisture, heat, and light. The dry powder is generally kept at minus 20 degrees Celsius, and some suppliers recommend minus 80 degrees for long-term archival. Once dissolved, solutions are usually aliquoted and frozen to avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles, which can promote aggregation or degradation. Aqueous stability depends on pH and concentration, and buffered saline is often preferred over plain water for biological work. Stability data specific to epitalon remain limited, so general peptide-handling practices are applied by analogy rather than from product-specific validation.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, abbreviated AEDG. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9 and its calculated monoisotopic mass is approximately 390.35 daltons. The compound does not occur naturally as a free peptide; it is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis. Because it contains two acidic residues and no basic residues, the neutral form carries a net negative charge at physiological pH. This charge profile influences how the peptide behaves in solution and during chromatographic analysis.
Laboratory work has examined effects on telomerase activity in cultured cells, on melatonin rhythms in animals, and on markers of oxidative stress. Some experiments report measurable changes while others show none, and the reported findings rest largely on small studies. The absence of large independent trials means the generality of these results is unresolved rather than settled. Review articles occasionally apply the label geroprotector, a term that reflects a research hypothesis about ageing rather than an established clinical finding.
Epitalon is the common name for a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, usually abbreviated AEDG. All four residues are proteinogenic amino acids, and the free peptide has a calculated mass near 390 grams per mole. Because the chain is short and carries no modifications, it is assembled readily by solid-phase synthesis and is distributed mainly as a freeze-dried solid for laboratory work. Catalogue listings use the spellings epitalon, epithalone, and simply AEDG, and the three refer to the same sequence.
Material supplied for laboratory use is normally a lyophilised white to off-white powder that dissolves readily in water and in isotonic saline. Lyophilised cakes are hygroscopic and should be equilibrated to room temperature before opening to limit condensation on the solid. Solutions are typically prepared at milligram-per-millilitre concentrations and divided into single-use aliquots, because repeated freeze–thaw cycles degrade short peptides. Aqueous solutions are far less stable than the dry powder, and identity is usually verified by mass spectrometry alongside purity estimation from reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
Epitalon is a synthetic linear tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine–glutamate–aspartate–glycine, abbreviated AEDG. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9 and the calculated mass is approximately 390.35 g/mol. The compound is made by solid-phase peptide synthesis rather than extracted from tissue, although early work described it as a short fragment of a peptide fraction obtained from bovine pineal extract. In the research literature the spelling epitalon and the variant epithalone both appear, while AEDG is the standard code used in peptide nomenclature.
Several names circulate for the same molecule, including epitalon, epithalone, epithalamin tetrapeptide, and the sequence code AEDG. A CAS registry number, 307297-39-8, is commonly cited for it, though catalogue entries should be checked against supplier documentation because mislabelled records occur. In its usual form the peptide carries free amino and carboxyl termini and is neither glycosylated nor lipidated. Researchers distinguish the defined tetrapeptide from epithalamin itself, a crude pineal preparation containing many peptides that is not chemically characterised.
Most experimental work has been carried out in cell culture and animal models. Several reports describe changes in telomerase activity and proliferation in cultured cells, while rodent studies have examined lifespan, melatonin rhythm and reproductive endpoints. Human data remain limited, and much of the published clinical material consists of small trials with incomplete reporting of methods and controls. Whether the cell and animal findings translate into measurable effects in people is an open question, and the mechanistic basis of the reported telomerase changes is not fully established.
Discussions in the literature often conflate three distinct entities: the pineal extract epithalamin, the isolated tetrapeptide AEDG, and commercial preparations sold under similar names. Reviews citing older Russian-language studies sometimes omit detail on purity, route of administration and control groups, which makes cross-study comparison difficult. Researchers working with the compound generally note the need for independent replication, standardized enzyme assays, and clearer reporting of peptide identity. These caveats are relevant when weighing claims that appear in secondary sources rather than in primary reports.
（TG:@pojiaai）Epitalon is a synthetic linear tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, abbreviated AEDG. It emerged from work on epithalamin, a peptide fraction prepared from bovine pineal tissue, and was designed as a short, chemically defined analogue of that extract. Early publications came mainly from Russian laboratories studying pineal peptides and aging-related endpoints. The compound appears in the literature under several spellings, including epithalon and epithalone, which complicates systematic searching. Its small size makes solid-phase assembly and routine analytical characterization straightforward.
Simcere Pharmaceutical Group or Simcere Pharmaceutical (Chinese: 先声药业, SEHK: 2096) is a manufacturer and supplier of branded generic pharmaceuticals in the Chinese market. Its focus is to introduce generic and pharmaceutical products for the treatment of diseases with high incidence and/or mortality rate. The company has introduced a generic anti-stroke medication under the brand name, Bicun, and an anti-cancer medication under the brand name, Endu. Its products include antibiotics, anti-stroke medications, anti-inflammatory drugs, anti-cancer medications and other medicines. In addition, it has obtained approvals from the China State Food and Drug Administration (SFDA) to manufacture and sell over 210 other products.
== Select publications == Müller, Thomas; Badu-Tawiah, Abraham; Cooks, R. Graham (2012). "Accelerated Carbon-Carbon Bond-Forming Reactions in Preparative Electrospray". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 51 (47): 11832–11835. doi:10.1002/anie.201206632. ISSN 1521-3773. PMID 23042619. Badu-Tawiah, Abraham K.; Eberlin, Livia S.; Ouyang, Zheng; Cooks, R. Graham (2016). "Faculty Opinions recommendation of Chemical aspects of the extractive methods of ambient ionization mass spectrometry". Annual Review of Physical Chemistry. 64: 481–505. doi:10.1146/annurev-physchem-040412-110026. PMID 23331308. Damon, Deidre E.; Davis, Kathryn M.; Moreira, Camila R.; Capone, Patricia; Cruttenden, Riley; Badu-Tawiah, Abraham K. (10 February 2016). "Direct Biofluid Analysis Using Hydrophobic Paper Spray Mass Spectrometry". Analytical Chemistry. 88 (3): 1878–1884. doi:10.1021/acs.analchem.5b04278.s001. PMID 26730614.
coli, 80% of mutations were negative, but 20% were positive, even though many had a very small effect on growth (depending on condition). Gene deletions involve removal of whole genes, so that point mutations almost always have a much smaller effect. In a similar screen in Streptococcus pneumoniae, but this time with transposon insertions, 76% of insertion mutants were classified as neutral, 16% had a significantly reduced fitness, but 6% were advantageous. This classification is obviously relative and somewhat artificial: a harmful mutation can quickly turn into a beneficial mutations when conditions change. Also, there is a gradient from harmful/beneficial to neutral, as many mutations may have small and mostly neglectable effects but under certain conditions will become relevant. Also, many traits are determined by hundreds of genes (or loci), so that each locus has only a minor effect. For instance, human height is determined by hundreds of genetic variants ("mutations") but each of them has a very minor effect on height, apart from the impact of nutrition. Height (or size) itself may be more or less beneficial as the huge range of sizes in animal or plant groups shows.
== Early life and education == David Andrew Sinclair was born in Australia in 1969 and grew up in St Ives, New South Wales. His paternal grandmother had emigrated to Australia following the suppression of the Hungarian Uprising of 1956, and his father changed the family name from Szigeti to Sinclair. Sinclair studied at the University of New South Wales, Sydney, obtaining a bachelor of science in biochemistry in 1991 and a Ph.D. in molecular genetics in 1995, focusing on gene regulation in yeast. He also won the Australian Commonwealth Prize.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
In May 1944, the Prime Minister, John Curtin, and the Commander-in-Chief of the Australian Army, General Sir Thomas Blamey, visited London for the 1944 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference. At Blamey's request, Curtin asked Florey if he would visit Australia as an advisor on the use of penicillin. Florey arrived in Australia in August 1944 to a hero's welcome, and he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine (MD) by the University of Adelaide. In accepting the degree, he recapitulated his own career, and spoke about the need to make it easier for research to be conducted in Australia. Florey met with Blamey; the two men got along well and chatted for several hours. It ended with Blamey convinced that Florey was the man to head a project Blamey had in mind: a medical research institute in Canberra, the national capital. Blamey put his proposal to Curtin on 24 October. It was quickly approved, but Curtin became ill, and he died in July 1945. Florey discovered that penicillin production was already underway in Australia at the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories (CSL) in Melbourne. In 1943, the War Cabinet had agreed to produce penicillin in Australia, and Colonel E. V. (Bill) Keogh, the Army's Director of Hygiene and Pathology, detailed Captain Percival Bazeley and Lieutenant H. H. Kretchmar to establish a production facility. They visited Peoria, and obtained penicillin cultures from Coghill. The first Australian-made penicillin began reaching the troops in New Guinea in December 1943.
== Bibliography == Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; et al. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties". Chinese Physics C. 41 (3) 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001. Beiser, A. (2003). Concepts of modern physics (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-244848-1. OCLC 48965418. Hoffman, D. C.; Ghiorso, A.; Seaborg, G. T. (2000). The Transuranium People: The Inside Story. World Scientific. ISBN 978-1-78-326244-1. Kragh, H. (2018). From Transuranic to Superheavy Elements: A Story of Dispute and Creation. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-75813-8. Zagrebaev, V.; Karpov, A.; Greiner, W. (2013). "Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 420 (1) 012001. arXiv:1207.5700. Bibcode:2013JPhCS.420a2001Z. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/420/1/012001. ISSN 1742-6588. S2CID 55434734.
16 July – Starmer suspends Neil Duncan-Jordan, Brian Leishman, Chris Hinchliff and Rachael Maskell from the Parliamentary Labour Party for repeated breaches of party discipline. 17 July – Prime Minister Keir Starmer and German Chancellor Friedrich Merz sign the Kensington Treaty during Merz's first official visit to the UK. The treaty includes plans for a direct train link between London and Berlin. Publication of the Elections Bill, which includes provisions for lowering the age of voting to 16 for the next general election. Diane Abbott is suspended from the Labour Party pending an investigation into comments she is alleged to have made about racism. 18 July – Sir Wayne David announces he is standing down as chief special adviser to Eluned Morgan for health reasons. 20 July – Nigel Farage accuses council officials of obstructing the work of Reform UK councillors as he defends the way the party is running some local authorities. 21 July – Nigel Farage proposes creating 30,000 prison places by sending some UK prisoners overseas to serve their sentences, repatriating foreign prisoners accommodated in UK prisons and building five new prisons. He also proposes recruiting a further 30,000 police officers. Outgoing Scottish Greens co-leader Patrick Harvie is selected as the party's top candidate for the Scottish Parliament's Glasgow regional constituency, giving him a strong change of re-election at the 2026 Scottish Parliament election. 22 July – Kemi Badenoch conducts a shadow cabinet reshuffle, her first as Leader of the Opposition.
== Etymology == Samaale, the last common ancestor of several Somali clans, is generally regarded as the source of the ethnonym Somali. Another theory is that the name is derived from the words soo and maal, which together mean "go" and "milk". This interpretation varies depending on region, with northern Somalis believing it means "camel's milk," and southern Somalis using the transliteration "sa maal", which refers to cow's milk. This is a reference to the pastoralism of the Somali people. Another proposed etymology is that the term Somali is derived from the Arabic ذوو مال, transliterated as dhawu māl and meaning "wealthy", again referring to Somali riches in livestock. The first written reference of the sobriquet Somali dates back to the early 15th century AD during the reign of Ethiopian Emperor Yeshaq I, who had one of his court officials compose a hymn celebrating a military victory over the Sultanate of Ifat. Simur was also an ancient Harari alias for the Somali people.
=== Etymology === The English word is from Classical Nahuatl chīlli with the same meaning. The name of the plant is unrelated to that of the country Chile. While pepper originally meant the genus Piper, not Capsicum, the Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam-Webster record both usages. The three primary spellings are chili (common in North America), chile (Central America and parts of the US) and chilli (United Kingdom and former British colonies). The specific dish name "chili con carne" is normally written with one "l" in both American and British English.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Fecundity == Fecundity of An. gambiae depends on the detoxification of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by catalase. Reduction in catalase activity significantly reduces reproductive output of female mosquitoes, indicating that catalase plays a central role in protecting oocytes and early embryos from ROS damage.
==== Education ==== The educational field also was a major way for adopting Western-style music. The educational reforms were led by Isawa Shūji (1851–1917) and Luther Whiting Mason (1828–1896). In 1880, the Music Research Institute in Tokyo (Ongaku Torishirabe Gakari), headed by Izawa Shuji, was founded. The Institute had three main tasks: 1) to introduce compulsory music teaching in schools, to introduce Western-style songs; 2) to train music teachers for the further development of professional musical activities; 3) to create music score collections for children, in which Japanese and Western style music elements could be combined. Thus, the first music scores "The First Collection for Primary School" was published in 1881. The newly educated music teachers organized lessons in singing, music theory, playing musical instruments (koto, kokyū, piano, organ and violin). In 1887, the Music Research Institute was reformed into Tokyo Academy of Music, which gave the Institution a new status and contributed to its further development. Western music was regarded as an essential contributory factor for modernization. The new curriculum was improved, and the number and quality of the musical events increased. Tokyo Academy of Music became the first Western-style music educational establishment in Japan. This was the nascence of schools teaching composition in the Western style in Japan, the genesis of an opera tradition in Japan, and laid the foundations for the Japanese formal tradition of familiarization with Western music.
Polysaccharides containing alpha-(1-4)-linked D-glucose units + H2O (specific for alpha-(1-4)-linkages, requirements for non-reducing chain end) Starch + H2O Amylopectin + H2O Glycogen Amylose + H2O Alpha-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-4)-2-deoxy-D-glucal (maltal) Inhibitors include Glucose, Maltose (competitive), Alpha-methyl-glucoside, Cyclodextrins (e.g. cyclohexaamylose), o-Iodosobenzoate, Ag+, Hg2+, Cu2+, N-Ethylmaleimide, p-Chloromercuribenzoate (reversed by DTT or mercaptoethanol, reversed by glutathione), Pb2+, Ni2+, Cd2+, Fe3+, Zn2+, Mn2+, Mg2+, EDTA, Beta-amylase inhibitor (from Streptomyces sp. No. 54), K2PtCl6, K2PtCl4, K2IrCl6, Na2PdCl6, CO32-, and Iodoacetamide.
NMD is used to protect the cell from producing harmful truncated proteins resulting from nonsense mutations. NMD has recently been found to impact cell differentiation of stem cells due to the decay of mRNA encoding factors. The NMD pathway differentiates premature termination codons (PTC) from normal stop codons by only attacking presliced mRNA strands. This means that the mRNA contains exons and introns in the strand. This is because the machinery for NMD recognizes exon-junctions complexes. Unlike translational termination, NMD utilizes many intermediate protein complexes to achieve mRNA decay. The initial step of NMD is the construction of the SURP complex. This complex is composed of 4 proteins: SMG-1, Upf1, eRF1, and eRF3 (SURF). The complex is formed when Upf1 binds to SMG-1, which then clamps onto the eRF1 and eRF3 termination complex. The SURF complex then associates with a downstream complex composed of Upf2, Upf3, and EJC to create a new complex: Decay-Inducing Complex (DECID). Upon the joining of the two complexes, the DECID complex dissociates eRF1, eRF3, and the ribosome. The new complex contains EJC, Upf2, Upf3, SMG-1, and a phosphorylated Upf1. The phosphorylated Upf1 protein attracts additional SMG proteins, which are in the endonuclease enzymatic family. The SMG protein then cleaves the mRNA strand near the premature stop codon. This event is essentially decapping the protective head group on the mRNA strand, which will cause the rest of the strand to be degraded by exosomes.
Asia and Oceania: Under the 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship, India and Nepal maintain an arrangement similar to the CTA and the Union State. Indians and Nepalis are not subject to any migration controls in each other's countries, and there are few controls on land travel by citizens across the border. India and Bhutan also have a similar programme in place. The border between Jaigaon, in the Indian state of West Bengal, and the city of Phuentsholing is essentially open, and although there are internal checkpoints, Indians (as outlined under the Visa policy of Bhutan are allowed to proceed throughout Bhutan with a voter's ID or an identity slip from the Indian consulate in Phuentsholing. Similarly, Bhutanese passport holders enjoy free movement in India. Thailand and Cambodia: Whilst not as liberal as the policies concerning the Indo-Nepalese and Indo-Bhutanese borders, Thailand and Cambodia have begun issuing combined visas to certain categories of tourists applying at specific Thai or Cambodian embassies and consulates, enabling freer border crossings between the two countries. The policy is currently in force for nationals of America and several European (primarily EU, EEA, and GCC) and Oceanian countries as well as for Indian and Chinese nationals residing in Singapore.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is based on epithalamin, a peptide-rich preparation obtained from pineal gland tissue and studied in the former Soviet Union. Researchers later identified the tetrapeptide AEDG as a constituent fragment of that material. Modern supplies are produced by chemical synthesis rather than tissue extraction.
No. Epithalamin is a heterogeneous extract containing many peptides, while epitalon is a single synthesised tetrapeptide. Publications sometimes treat findings from the two as equivalent, which is a common source of confusion. Their compositions differ and they are not interchangeable in analytical terms.
Most published work uses cell cultures or rodents because those models are faster and less costly to run. The few human trials that have been reported are small, and several lack control groups or blinding. This restricts what can reasonably be concluded about effects in people.
The peptide contains four residues in the order alanine, glutamate, aspartate and glycine, abbreviated AEDG. The chain is linear and held together by three peptide bonds. Its calculated mass for the uncharged free form is about 390.3 daltons.